Is there a third great commandment?

A "scribe" or "lawyer" (nomikos — a Torah expert) asked Jesus, ““Teacher, which is the great commandment in the law?” (Matt 22:25 NKJV).  The GW translation better expresses the cultural context: "One of them, an expert in Moses’ Teachings, tested Jesus by asking, ‘Teacher, which commandment is the greatest in Moses’ Teachings?’”  The Delitzsch Hebrew NT translates the last phrase with "mitsvah gedolah ba-torah"— the great commandment in the Torah.  Here is the complete Matthew version of the event.

Matt. 22:35 NET – And one of them, an expert in religious law, asked him a question to test him: 36 “Teacher, which commandment in the law (εν τω νομω – en to nomo / ‏בַּתּוֹרָה – ba-torah) is the greatest?” 37 Jesus said to him, “‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind.’ 38 This is the first and greatest commandment. 39 The second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.’ 40 All the law and the prophets (ο νομος και οι προφηται – o nomos kai oi prophetai / ‏הַתּוֹרָה וְהַנְּבִיאִים – ha-torah ve-ha-nevi'im) depend on these two commandments.” 

The version of the event in Mark has a little more detail.

Mark 12:28 NKJV – Then one of the scribes came, and having heard them reasoning together, perceiving that He had answered them well, asked Him, “Which is the first commandment of all?” 29 Jesus answered him, “The first of all the commandments is: ‘Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one. 30 And you shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength.’ This is the first commandment. 31 And the second, like it, is this: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself.’ There is no other commandment greater than these.” 32 So the scribe said to Him, “Well said, Teacher. You have spoken the truth, for there is one God, and there is no other but He. 33 And to love Him with all the heart, with all the understanding, with all the soul, and with all the strength, and to love one’s neighbor as oneself, is more than all the whole burnt offerings and sacrifices.” 34 Now when Jesus saw that he answered wisely, He said to him, “You are not far from the kingdom of God.” 

In both versions of the story, Jesus quotes from the Torah— Deuteronomy 6:4-5 and Leviticus 19:18.  The Greek in the Mark quotes from Deuteronomy is somewhat closer to the Septuagint than the Matthew version, but neither the Matthew or Mark versions quote the Septuagint exactly.  The Leviticus quote matches the Septuagint exactly. Despite the minor word differences, the identity of the quoted texts are not in doubt.

In these New Testament texts, the phrase "you shall love" in each commandment translates the Greek word agapeseis (αγαπησεις).  The identical inflected form of this word is used in all the NT instances of these texts and matches the form that is used in the Septuagint texts they are quoting.

There are only four instances of this inflected form— agapeseis (you shall love)— in the Septuagint.  Here are the NKJV translations of these four texts.

Lev. 19:18 NKJV – You shall not take vengeance, nor bear any grudge against the children of your people, but you shall love (και αγαπησεις – kai agapeseis / ‏וְאָהַבְתָּ – ve-ahavta) your neighbor as yourself: I am the LORD. 

Lev. 19:34 NKJV – The stranger who dwells among you shall be to you as one born among you, and you shall love (και αγαπησεις – kai agapeseis / ‏וְאָהַבְתָּ – ve-ahavta) him as yourself; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt: I am the LORD your God. 

Deut. 6:5 NKJV – You shall love (και αγαπησεις – kai agapeseis / ‏וְאָהַבְתָּ – ve-ahavta) the LORD your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength. 

Deut. 11:1 NKJV – Therefore you shall love (και αγαπησεις – kai agapeseis / ‏וְאָהַבְתָּ – ve-ahavta) the LORD your God, and keep His charge, His statutes, His judgments, and His commandments always. 

The Hebrew ve-ahavta (וְאָהַבְתָּ)— and you shall love— is used in the same four places; as with the Greek agapeseis in the Septuagint, these four places are the only ones where this inflection is used in the Masoretic Text.  In both Hebrew and Greek, these four texts use exactly the same words and inflections to express "you shall love", and these texts are also the only places in the Old Testament where these inflections— ve-ahavta and agapeseis— are used.

The Deuteronomy 11:1 text is similar to Deuteronomy 6:5, but perhaps expands on what it means to "love the LORD."  Of these four, the text from Leviticus 19:34 is a little different— it isn't quoted anywhere else and it is not as well known.  Since the other texts in this set are so important, perhaps Leviticus 19:34 deserves closer attention.

KJV – But the stranger (προσηλυτος – proselytos / ‏הַגֵּר – ha-ger) that dwelleth with you shall be unto you as one born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were strangers (προσηλυτοι – proselytoi / ‏גֵרִים – gerim) in the land of Egypt: I am the LORD your God. 

NIV 1984 – The alien living with you must be treated as one of your native-born. Love him as yourself, for you were aliens in Egypt. I am the Lord your God.

NIV 2010 – The foreigner residing among you must be treated as your native-born. Love them as yourself, for you were foreigners in Egypt. I am the LORD your God.

MSG – When a foreigner lives with you in your land, don't take advantage of him. Treat the foreigner the same as a native. Love him like one of your own. Remember that you were once foreigners in Egypt. I am God, your God. 

GW – Foreigners living among you will be like your own people. Love them as you love yourself, because you were foreigners living in Egypt. I am the Lord your God. 

The Hebrew word that is translated above as stranger, alien or foreigner, is ger (‏גֵּר – H1616). In these texts, the Septuagint translates ger with the Greek word proselytos (προσηλυτος – G4339).

Gesenius's Lexicon defines ger as "a sojourner, stranger, foreigner, a person living out of his own country."  Thayer's Lexicon has, as the first definition for proselytos, "a newcomer; a stranger, alien; the Septuagint often for ger" with a secondary definition, "a proselyte, i.e. one who has come over from a Gentile religion to Judaism."  Thayer's Lexicon continues with some details on this second definition.

The rabbis distinguish two classes of proselytes, viz. gere hatsedeq proselytes of righteousness, who received circumcision and bound themselves to keep the whole Mosaic law and to comply with all the requirements of Judaism, and gere hashaʿar, proselytes of the gate..., who dwelt among the Jews, and although uncircumcised observed certain specified laws, especially the seven precepts of Noah (as the rabbis called them), i.e. against the seven chief sins, idolatry, blasphemy against God, homicide, unchastity, theft or plundering, rebellion against rulers, and the use of flesh with the blood thereof. 

Google Translate returns "stranger, foreigner, neophyte" as the English translation for ger.  However, the Multi Dictionary also gives "convert to Judaism" as the English definition for ger.  Which of these range of meanings is the one that best fits the use in Leviticus 19:34?

The first use of ger in the Bible is in Genesis 15:13; clearly, the foreign meaning is the most appropriate:

KJV – And he said unto Abram, Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years.

Abraham uses the word to describe himself in Genesis 23:4; again, foreign works best in this context:

KJV – I am a stranger and a sojourner with you: give me a possession of a buryingplace with you, that I may bury my dead out of my sight.  

The "as one born among you" phrase in Leviticus 19:34 also suggests that foreign is the more appropriate understanding of ger for the context;  other texts that similarly contrast the ger with the native born include: "whether he be a stranger, or born in the land" (Gen 12:19 KJV), "ye were strangers in the land of Egypt" (Ex 22:21 KJV), "any of your own nation, nor any stranger that sojourneth among you" (Lev 18:26 KJV).

How much does the Old Testament have to say about foreigners?  Is this really an important OT topic?  Here is a sample of texts that use ger in the Hebrew text and proselytos in the Septuagint.

Ex 12:49 NIV – The same law applies both to the native-born and to the foreigner residing among you.

Ex 20:10 NIV – but the seventh day is a sabbath to the LORD your God. On it you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son or daughter, nor your male or female servant, nor your animals, nor any foreigner residing in your towns.  

Ex 22:21 CEV – Do not mistreat or abuse foreigners who live among you. Remember, you were foreigners in Egypt. 

Lev 16:29 HCSB – This is to be a permanent statute for you: In the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month you are to practice self-denial and do no work, both the native and the foreigner who resides among you.

Lev 17:8 NKJV – “Also you shall say to them: ‘Whatever man of the house of Israel, or of the strangers who dwell among you, who offers a burnt offering or sacrifice, ...

Lev 17:10 GW – If Israelites or foreigners eat any blood, I will condemn them and exclude them from the people,... 

Lev. 20:2 NKJV – Again, you shall say to the children of Israel: ‘Whoever of the children of Israel, or of the strangers who dwell in Israel, who gives any of his descendants to Molech, he shall surely be put to death. The people of the land shall stone him with stones. 

Lev 23:22 NASB – When you reap the harvest of your land, moreover, you shall not reap to the very corners of your field nor gather the gleaning of your harvest; you are to leave them for the needy and the alien. I am the LORD your God.

Deut 10:18 CEV – The LORD defends the rights of orphans and widows. He cares for foreigners and gives them food and clothing. 19 And you should also care for them, because you were foreigners in Egypt.

Deut 16:11 NIV – And rejoice before the LORD your God at the place he will choose as a dwelling for his Name—you, your sons and daughters, your male and female servants, the Levites in your towns, and the foreigners, the fatherless and the widows living among you.

The word ger occurs 92 times in the Hebrew Bible; the word proselytos occurs 84 times in the Septuagint.  It is not a minor topic.  Perhaps it would be going too far to say that Leviticus 19:34 is a third great commandment; however, when on another occasion the "great commandments" were the discussed, Jesus extended the concept of neighbor beyond the community of Israel.

Luke 10:25 NKJV – And behold, a certain lawyer stood up and tested Him, saying, “Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?” 26 He said to him, “What is written in the law (εν τω νομω - en to nomo / ‏בַּתּוֹרָה – ba-torah)? What is your reading of it?” 27 So he answered and said, ““You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind,’ and ‘your neighbor as yourself.’ ” 28 And He said to him, “You have answered rightly; do this and you will live.”

Luke 10:29 NKJV – But he, wanting to justify himself, said to Jesus, “And who is my neighbor?” 30 Then Jesus answered and said: “A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, who stripped him of his clothing, wounded him, and departed, leaving him half dead. 31 Now by chance a certain priest came down that road. And when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. 32 Likewise a Levite, when he arrived at the place, came and looked, and passed by on the other side. 33 But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was. And when he saw him, he had compassion....

Perhaps, in this sense, we could say that Leviticus 19:34 is a third "great commandment"— it is "like unto" the first and second great commandments in form and Jesus links it implicitly to the second great commandment with the story of the Good Samaritan.  The point of this post is that the principles illustrated by the Good Samaritan were already present in the Torah.

It would probably help us to better understand the context of the early church if we studied the relationships between the second-temple community of Israel and foreigners who were connected to it.  A superficial reading of the New Testament might give the impression that gentile conversions were an innovation of the Christian church.  A careful reading of Acts suggests that many, if not most, of the early gentile converts to "The Way" were already attached to the synagogues that Paul visited on his journeys.  Prior to Paul's intervention in these synagogues, there undoubtedly was prejudice and tension already over the specifics of how these gentiles were to be treated.  From this perspective, the controversies over gentile conversions described in the New Testament can be seen as a continuing struggle— on a larger scale— to implement the Teachings (Torah) on the proselyte rather than a break from Torah.

I have written in an earlier post about the Jerusalem Council described in Acts 15 and how their conclusions were an interpretation and implementation of principles from the Torah rather than a rejection of Torah.